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<\/a>by Sharon Lauricella<\/a> and Samuel Kyereme<\/a><\/span>R3 Contributors<\/span>
*A extended version of this post is in press with the Journal of Religion and Society.<\/span><\/i>
<\/span>\u201cGod give new beginnings, you can start right now\u201d \u2014 T.I., A Better Day, 2008<\/span>
<\/span>
<\/span><\/a><\/span>Like those who listen to it, rap music, together with Motown, blues, and music brought to North America from West Africa, embodies both the sacred and the secular in surprising and meaningful ways. In rap music, and also in other traditionally Black music genres, the \u201cprofane\u201d \u2013 that is, the secular \u2013 can and does coexist with the \u201choly\u201d \u2013 references to God or the Divine (Reed, 2003). For example, rap music fuses religious, spiritual, or sacred messages together with references to drugs and crime, objectification of women, or aggression. As our fellow contributor Ebony Utley<\/a> (2012) eloquently suggests, the \u201cgangsta\u2019s God\u201d is a \u201csocially constructed deity whose purpose is to provide meaning and power in a world of chaos and disenfranchisement\u201d (p. 9). <\/span>
<\/span>The coexistence of the holy and profane in rap music is at first blush as surprising as the lion lying down with the lamb. However, references to the holy and profane in hip hop can be found in analyses of Lil\u2019 Wayne (Lauricella & Alexander, 2011), Tupac Shakur (Reed, 203, 148-160), and even M. C. Hammer (Sorett, 2010). Then the holy profane in hip hop music works; while the religious and secular appear paradoxical, the two work together in ways that resonate with both the performer and the audience. <\/span>
<\/span>Two hip hop artists in particular are meaningful examples of the coexistence and cooperation of the holy and profane in hip hop, though their approaches to the juxtaposition of the holy and profane are markedly different. T.I. (or, T.I.P.), a former drug dealer and prison inmate, openly embraces spirituality and Christianity, especially in his recent recordings. He embraces the notion of a theistic figure more powerful than himself to whom he prays and worships. Jay-Z, widely recognized as a forerunner in the rap scene (so recognized, in fact, that he appeared on Oprah), considers himself holy, or the embodiment of both the holy and profane in one entity \u2014 the rapper. Utley suggests that Jay-Z combines both secular and sacred legends to portray himself as both a rebel (the secular) and a selfless Jesus-like figure (the sacred). Utley takes Reed\u2019s holy\/profane dichotomy a step further by describing God in rap as either \u201cout there\u201d or \u201cdown here\u201d \u2013 this sophisticated analysis lends further depth to our understanding of religion amongst the disenfranchised as a whole.<\/span>
<\/span>In the context of the holy and profane in rap music, we consider T.I. and Jay-Z\u2019s music and personal circumstances as concurrent narratives (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). It is suggested \u2013 not surprisingly \u2013 that personal experiences of each hip hop artist directly informed their lyrics. To our knowledge, no academic work on rap music and religion\/ spirituality makes note of the religious\/spiritual contributions of T.I., and though several studies give mention to Jay-Z (Dimitriadis, 2009; Rose, 2008), particularly with mention to his seemingly effortless rhymes (Bradley, 2009), none takes particular note of the important distinction that he makes of himself: the Deity, or God, of rap. <\/span>
<\/span>T.I., T.I.P., or Clifford Joseph Harris<\/span><\/b>
<\/span>Clifford Joseph Harris, more popularly recognized by the monikers T.I. or T.I.P., was raised in poverty in Atlanta, Georgia. The young Harris took to selling drugs on the streets at age 14 to make do while pursuing a high school education. Similar to many of his colleagues in hip hop (including 50 Cent, Rick Ross, and Jay-Z), T. I. possessed a combination of the \u201chustler\u201d lifestyle of selling drugs and other crime, as well as a gift for charismatic musical delivery in the form of rap rhymes. <\/span>
<\/span>Harris was signed to Laface Records in 1999, after gaining prominence through the mixtape circuit. His gift of articulation through the spoken word was not readily accepted in the popular rap scene, which led to his subsequent separation from the label. Over a five year period, however, various projects such as Trap Muzik (2003), Urban Legend (2004) and King (2006) were released through Grand Hustle Records, a subsidiary of Atlantic Records. The rapper\u2019s chronicling of victories with women, drug deals, creating wealth and raising a family led to praise from both industry heavyweights and fans. King was so well received that T.I. was honoured with a Grammy in (2006) for the street anthem, \u201cWhat You Know\u201d (http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LAVKMFnPPcA).<\/a><\/span>
<\/span>Lyrics in T.I.\u2019s tracks in the early 2000\u2019s indicate his emotional and economic place at the time; \u201cI\u2019m Serious\u201d (2001) showed a vain, arrogant personality that referenced growing up in a disadvantaged, single parent home. \u201cStill Ain\u2019t Forgave myself\u201d offers a glimpse into the rapper\u2019s childhood as he states, \u201d My daddy sends me clothes and always tell me come and see him\u201d following with, \u201cThen I started rebellin\u2019 began crack
\nsellin\u2026 Now my momma findin\u2019 rocks [crack] in my socks, glocks [guns] in my socks.\u201d The album to follow, Trap Muzik (2003), echoed the same sentiments with the use of catchy hooks to captivate audiences, such as \u201cRubber band man\/ wild as the Taliban\u201d (Rubber Band Man, 2003). <\/span>
<\/span>It is notable that the \u201ctrap\u201d is a reference to all aspects of the drug trade \u2013 the purchase, sale, and subsequent attempt(s) to stop using drugs \u2013 thus the nomenclature of this album references T.I.\u2019s criminal activity. The upcoming arrival of a son along with a reality check from producers motivated T.I.\u2019s change in occupation from drug dealer to full-time rapper. Despite obvious bitterness about his criminal past, glimmers of positivity are found in this album. For example, in \u201cBe better than me\u201d (2003), T.I. encourages his listeners to seek paths that are different from his own: \u201cDon\u2019t be lookin at me listenin to dope boys and trap n**gas thinkin it\u2019s just like that\u2026don\u2019t be like me be better than me.\u201d Urban Legend, released a year later in 2004, featured tracks pointing toward a more spiritually oriented approach to T.I.\u2019s life struggles. After numerous mentions of personal attributes that separate him from the rest, T.I. states, \u201cBut back to reality G.O. D. Still carryin\u2019 me, n**ga I run this\u2026if God with me who could be against me sucka? Can\u2019t make me suffer just make me tougher.\u201d <\/span>
<\/span>The most poignant of T.I.\u2019s tracks which demonstrate the coexistence of the holy and profane is \u201cPrayin for help\u201d (2004). The track begins with an emotional plea by reciting the Christian prayer \u201cOur Father\u201d amidst an ongoing fight in the background. The first 31 seconds of this track (visible via http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9cO-_VS79r0<\/a>) are not only a lyrical representation of the manifestation of the holy and profane, but also visual evidence of the holy and profane at once. The \u201cPrayin for help\u201d track includes lyrics and chorus lines which are charged with references to Jesus Christ (\u201cThat Ima change my life, get right, start livin like Christ, to tha end of my fight\u201d), the desire to live right (\u201cIf it take till I\u2019m a hundred years old\/Bet I\u2019m reaching every one of my goals\u201d) and for the artist\u2019s desire to help his community (\u201cThe ones that don even pray they got me\u201d). Similar to keeping a diary of one\u2019s thoughts and activities, T.I\u2019s lyrics act as a narrative gateway to the narrative of his personal experiences. <\/span>
<\/span>T.I\u2019s sixth studio album, Paper Trail (2008), was made with intention. By this time, T.I. was sentenced to prison for an undefined time period (ultimately about seven months) on U.S federal weapons charges. As a keepsake for fans and well wishers as he prepared to enter prison, the album expresses regret and remorse at his prison sentence. In this new direction, T.I. became a mentor of sorts, providing wisdom to his fans on how to approach adversity. The album recounts how the death of his bodyguard and lifelong friend Philant Johnson, along with the oncoming loss of personal freedom, instilled significant changes. <\/span>
<\/span>Religious and spiritual references are observable in nearly every track on Paper Trail. For example, the hit single \u201cLive your life\u201d featuring pop sensation Rihanna echoes the role of the divine in T.I.\u2019s daily experience (http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=koVHN6eO4Xg<\/a>). When speaking of those in his neighbourhood he says, \u201cI pray for patience but they make me wanna melt they face away.\u201d By this the rapper means the pressures of dealing with those from his immediate surroundings who are not supportive of his success prompts the search for patience from the Divine. Additional spiritual references in this highly successful track \u2013 it reached #1 on the Billboard Charts \u2013 include T.I.\u2019s comparison of himself to other mainstream rappers by observing, \u201cYour values is a disarray, prioritizin\u2019 horribly, unhappy with the riches \u2018cause you piss poor morally.\u201d <\/span>
<\/span>Scholarship on religion\/spirituality clearly shows that the religious\/spiritual element in one\u2019s life is heightened in times of personal crisis or challenge. Religious\/spiritual practices such as prayer are reported to be helpful in coping with a life challenge (Bade & Cook, 2008; Carver et al., 1989; Pargament, 2007) such as a health crisis (Baesler et al, 2003) or economic hardship (Clark & Lelkes, 2005). Imprisonment on drug charges is quite clearly a life crisis, therefore T.I.\u2019s lyrical narrative shows a clear identification with religion and spirituality. For this rapper, religion and spirituality brought strength and courage, while also offering inspiration to fans. <\/span>
<\/span>Jay-Z, or Shawn Corey Carter<\/span><\/b>
<\/span>Shawn Carter, more widely recognized as Jay-Z, currently boasts 11 albums having sold over 50 million copies worldwide (Greenburg, 2011). Carter, however, had his humble beginning as the youngest of three children in a single parent home in the Brooklyn projects. Carter began rapping in the 1980\u2019s as a teenager, writing rhymes and battling other rappers from his area and surrounding high schools. After appearing in his first video with local artist Jaz, Carter\u2019s desire for recognition went into overdrive. When he failed to get signed with a major record label, the hopeful rapper turned to drug dealing as a means of income, foregoing both school and rap. After continual pressure from friends and family members (Carter, 2010), he decided to give rap one more try, at which point he became associated with Damon Dash, a well known figure in Harlem Rap. He and Dash pioneered Rocafella Records in 1996 in which Jay-Z\u2019s first major release, Reasonable Doubt, was produced. The album was a chronicle of the hustler lifestyle (selling drugs, attracting women, and buying expensive items). This work established Jay-Z\u2019s audience whose support catapulted him to widespread acclaim and popularity with hits including \u201cHard Knock Life\u201d (1999) and \u201cMoney Ain\u2019t a Thang (1998). At this point, spirituality or references to any sort of Divinity were not present in Carter\u2019s work. <\/span>
<\/span>However, in 1999, Jay-Z dropped Vol 3: The Life and Times of S. Carter. There was a sense of finality and pride on this album, particularly in the opening track, \u201cHova Song.\u201d \u201cHova,\u201d a shortened form of \u201cJehovah,\u201d is an alternative rendering of the word \u201cGod\u201d in Abrahamic traditions. Jay-Z\u2019s new moniker was a bold declaration of his belief that he had risen to the level of \u201cRap God\u201d in just three years as a signed act. The tracks on this collection revealed Jay-Z\u2019s entrenchment in the streets, his reputation as a ladies\u2019 man and ultimately being dubbed the best artist in rap. The track \u201cS. Carter\u201d features a glimpse into this new image where Jay-Z says of himself, \u201cHustler, n**ga move weight like Oprah\/ Drive wide body, twenty-inch big motor\/ No tints
\n, make no mistake y\u2019all it\u2019s Hova\/ I stay sportin\u2019 played Jordan\u2019s before Jordan.\u201d The album ends with a \u201cHova Song\u201d outro where Jay-Z proclaims, \u201cI\u2019m the illest n**ga doin it til y\u2019all prove me wrong\/Do you believe?\/It\u2019s Hova the God, uhh, uhh, uhh.\u201d Utley shows that each of Jay-Z\u2019s iterations of his new monikers (\u201cHov,\u201d \u201cKing Hov,\u201d and \u201cHovito\u201d) reiterates his self-identification with God (p. 141).<\/span>
<\/span>Since Jay-Z self-appointed himself \u201cHova\u201d in the 1999, his sonic creations contain the refrain of the rapper\u2019s belief that beyond being the best in rap, he had ascended into the realm of being revered. The ode \u201cIzzo (H.O.V.A)\u201d (2001), from The Blueprint is saturated with the moniker \u201cHova,\u201d in which the chorus spells out the remarkably catchy, \u201cH to the izz-O, V to the izz-A.\u201d (http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ZWPYBmN3TUk<\/a>). The reference to Jay-Z as the Jehovah (\u201cHova\u201d) or God of rap is highly identifiable throughout subsequent material. 2003`s \u201cWhat More Can I Say\u201d from The Black Album is a discussion of Jay-Z\u2019s greatness from the first person point of view. After continual discussion of his various attributes and contributions to the rap game Jay-Z exclaims, \u201cYoung Hova the God blast for me.\u201d This line is significant seeing as the rapper calls on the listener to celebrate his presence. Jay-Z continues his proclamations of his status as rap\u2019s God in 2006`s \u201cKingdom Come\u201d with the chorus, \u201cWithout the boy H.O.V. (I will be, I will be)\/ Not only N.Y.C. \/ I\u2019m hip hop\u2019s savior (Yeah).\u201d Jay-Z therefore declares himself not only the God of hip hop but also its saviour. Jay-Z continues the parade of his place as rap deity in 2009\u2019s \u201cRun This Town\u201d featuring Kanye West and Rihanna on The Blueprint 3. \u201cRun This Town\u201d features Jay-Z`s declaration of his takeover, \u201cIt\u2019s the return of the God Peace God.\u201d While this may not be an explicit reference to the name Jehovah, the implications are just as meaningful; Jay-Z announces his place as \u201cthe God,\u201d prompting listeners to dismiss any other potential rappers challenging his Divine status. <\/span>
<\/span>T.I. and Jay-Z in the context of rap and religion<\/span><\/b>
<\/span>Given its recognized place in popular culture, rap provides a framework of realism that allows the uninhibited expression of references to life experiences, including religiosity and spirituality. Hip hop allows religious and spiritual utterances in a framework of authenticity and candor, for there is no singular or right way to be religious spiritual in hip hop. While some scholarship on hip hop and religion\/spirituality is Christian in nature (Gooch, 1996; Hatch, 2002), Pinn and Miller (2009) suggest that spiritual analyses of hip hop need not be doctrine specific, and Pinn further suggests that rap music is more about being understood as a \u201cterrain for the articulation of religious struggle and redemption\u201d (Pinn, 2009, 106). This narrative analysis of two hip hop artists clearly demonstrates markedly different manifestations of the religious and spiritual in hip hop, and shows how two different artists, when faced with personal struggle, manifest religion and spirituality in different ways.<\/span>
<\/span>Struggle and redemption, as suggested by Pinn (2009), is a defining element in hip hop, as in other traditions of black music from the post-Civil war period to Motown (Reed, 2003). The notion of struggle is clearly identified in historical (Chang, 2005) and political (Kelley, 1994) analyses of rap music. In this narrative analysis of two highly successful \u2013 and markedly different \u2013 rap artists, both T.I. and Jay-Z identify with personal struggle. Such struggle is the \u201cprofanity\u201d in hip hop \u2014 criminal activity, selling drugs, womanizing and weapons charges all offer a clear representation of the \u201chustle,\u201d or the secular struggle so often referenced in rap lyrics. <\/span>
<\/span>In response to a prison sentence on weapons charges, a realization of personal responsibility, and the desire to make a turn for the positive, T.I. openly embraces Divinity and makes explicit mentions of God in his work. His references to God are identifiably Christian, and the aforementioned audio overlay of The Lord\u2019s Prayer and a street fight is a poignant representation of T.I.\u2019s spiritual (holy) response to the street life (the profane). This response is a clear articulation of what Reed (2003) describes in her suggestion that the holy and profane are inextricably combined in rap music. <\/span>
<\/span>By contrast, Jay-Z responded to his hustler past by both quickly and unabashedly dubbing himself, \u201cHova,\u201d an abbreviated form of \u201cJehovah,\u201d or the Judeo-Christian \u201cGod.\u201d This, too, is a \u201choly\u201d response to his profane, personal struggle. Jay-Z\u2019s own \u201cdivinity\u201d puts a new perspective to religion and spirituality in hip hop, for Jay-Z does not embrace a dualistic God. Rather, he considers himself to be the embodiment or representative of God in the hip hop arena \u2013 this is what Utley refers to as the God \u201cdown here.\u201d While other rappers such as Tupac Shakur and Lauryn Hill (Kirk-Duggan, 2009) and Lil\u2019 Wayne (Lauricella & Alexander, 2012) embrace a Christian representation of Divinity, Jay-Z considers himself the manifestation of the Divine. While both rappers identify with the concept of Divinity, their approach to the coexistence of the holy and profane is different; T.I. promotes worship of a Christian God, while Jay-Z wants to be worshipped as a human incarnation of the holy in rap.<\/span>
<\/span>Conclusion<\/span>
<\/span>To date, the notion of the holy and profane in hip hop has focused primarily on the coexistence of profane lyrics and sentiments (such as crime, drugs, misogyny) while in the same context, insinuating religious\/spiritual concepts such as Biblical verses, prayer, and the culture of struggle and redemption. Thus, scholarship on rap and religion\/spirituality has focused primarily on finding a spiritual solution (regardless of orthodoxy or denomination) to personal challenge. We considered the personal history of each rapper, together with lyrics in tracks relative to spirituality, as concurrent narratives illustrating both the holy and the profane in hip hop. The addition of T.I. (Clifford Harris) is a new contribution to the literature on hip hop and religion, and the deeper analysis of Jay-Z as a self-appointed deity adds a fuller dimension to scholarly literature considering religion\/spirituality in hip hop.<\/span>
<\/span>We identify T.I.\u2019s spirituality as a Christian response to a series of personal struggles. His \u201cprofane\u201d experiences in dealing drugs, using weapons and materialism made way for a subsequent \u201choly\u201d response in embodying Christian values such as honesty, surrender to God, and prayer, particularly in his work from 2003 onward. The embrace o
\nf a Christian response to adversity, as T.I.\u2019s work reveals, is not a surprising response to struggle; scholarly literature on coping shows that people often turn to religion during times of personal crisis. <\/span>
<\/span>By contrast, Jay-Z\u2019s response to the \u201cprofane\u201d struggle in his life of drug dealing and hustling revealed a concept of the \u201choly\u201d in hip hop which focused on himself as a God. The rapper\u2019s proactive self reliance in overcoming the ills of childhood led to the creation of an inner idol, \u201cHova,\u201d to whom Jay-Z is subject. This proclamation of divinity can be considered part of rap\u2019s \u201cbraggadocio\u201d \u2013 the bragging and boasting about physical prowess, brawn or bling. Or, this not-so-humble profession could be considered by some as blasphemous in itself; the self-appointment of the moniker \u201cHova,\u201d and thus dubbing oneself \u201cGod\u201d could be considered an articulation of profanity in hip hop (Utley (2011) eloquently \u2013 and we think correctly \u2013 disagrees with this sentiment). Jay-Z is, we propose, an embodiment of both the holy and profane in one character, whether considered blasphemous or not. As Reed (2003) shows, the holy and profane in hip hop work together to speak to both the artist and the community. Jay-Z, then, is one such artist who simply by means of his self-appointed moniker and rap success is the personal, earthly embodiment of the holy and profane.<\/span>
<\/span>
<\/span>References<\/span>
<\/span>
<\/span>AZ Lyrics. (2012). Jay-Z lyrics. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.azlyrics.com\/j\/jayz.html<\/span>
<\/span>AZ Lyrics. (2012). T.I. lyrics. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.azlyrics.com\/t\/ti.html<\/span>
<\/span>Bade, M. K., & Cook, S. W. (2008). Functions of Christian prayer in the coping process. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47(1), 123-133. doi: 10.1111\/j.1468-5906.2008.00396.x<\/span>
<\/span>Baesler, E.J., Derlega, V.J., Winstead, B.A. & Barbee, A. (2003). Prayer as interpersonal coping in the lives of mothers with HIV. Women & Therapy, 26(3\/4), 283-295.<\/span>
<\/span>Bradley, A. (2009). Book of rhymes: The poetics of hip hop. New York: Basic Civitas Books.<\/span>
<\/span>Carter, S. (2010). Decoded. New York: Spiegel and Grau.<\/span>
<\/span>Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, K. J. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267-283.<\/span>
<\/span>Chang, Jeff. (2005). Can\u2019t Stop, Won\u2019t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: Picador.<\/span>
<\/span>Clandinin, D. J. & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<\/span>
<\/span>Clark, A., & Lelkes, O. (2005). Deliver us from evil: Religion as insurance. PER Working Paper 06\/03, European Center for Social Welfare Policy and Research.<\/span>
<\/span>Dimitriadis, G. (2009). Performing identity\/ performing culture: Hip hop as text, pedagogy and lived practice. New York: Peter Lang.<\/span>
<\/span>Gooch, C. R. (1996). Rappin\u2019 for the Lord: The uses of gospel rap and contemporary music in Black religious communities. Religion & mass media: Audiences & adaptations. D. A. Stout & J. M. Buddenbaum, Eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. p. 228-242.<\/span>
<\/span>Greaves, S. (2009). T.I.\u2019s troubles the focus on vh1\u2019s \u2018behind the music\u2019. Retrieved May 15, 2012 from http:\/\/www.starpulse.com\/news\/Samantha_Greaves\/2009\/10\/09\/t_i_s_troubles_the_focus_on_vh1_s_behind.<\/span>
<\/span>Greenburg, Z. O. (2011). Empire state of mind: Jay-Z\u2019s journey from street corner to corner office. New York: Penguin.<\/span>
<\/span>Hatch, J. B. (2002). Rhetorical synthesis through a (rap)prochement of identities: Hip-hop and the gospel according to the Gospel Gangstaz. Journal of Communication and Religion 25, 228-267.<\/span>
<\/span>Heller, G. & Silverstein, A. (Writers) & Harper, W., Williams, P., Flint, J. & Santiago, C. (Directors). (Oct 8 2009). T. I. [ Episode 173]. In VH1, Behind the Music. USA:CBS Television Distribution.<\/span>
<\/span>Kelley, N. (2005). Rhythm and business: The political economy of black music. New York: Akashic Books.<\/span>
<\/span>Kirk-Duggan, Cheryl A. (2009). \u201cThe Theo-Poetic Theological Ethics of Lauryn Hill and Tupac Shakur.\u201d In Creating Ourselves: African Americans and Hispanic Americans on Popular Culture and Religious Expression, edited by Anthony B. Pinn and Benjamin Valent\u00edn, 204-223. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <\/span>
<\/span>Lauricella, S. & Alexander, M. (2012). Voice from Rikers: Spirituality in hip hop artist Lil\u2019 Wayne\u2019s prison blog. Journal of Religion and Popular Culture, 24(1). doi:10.3138\/jrpc.24.1.15<\/span>
<\/span>MusicAngel89. (2007, Sep 14). Jay z biography part 1 [Video file]. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=S06lnyZ4Qps.<\/span>
<\/span>Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Guilford.<\/span>
<\/span>Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and addressing the sacred. New York: The Guildford Press.<\/span>
<\/span>Pinn, A. B. (2009). Rap music culture and religion: Concluding thoughts. Culture and Religion 10(1), 97-108. doi:10.1080\/14755610902786361<\/span>
<\/span>Pinn, A. B. & Miller, M. R. (2009). Introduction: Intersections of culture and religion in African-American communities. Culture and Religion 10(1), 1-9. doi:10.1080\/14755610902786270<\/span>
<\/span>Reed, Teresa. (2003). The Holy profane: Religion in Black popular music. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky.<\/span>
<\/span>Rose, T. (2008). The hip hop wars: What we talk about when we talk about hip hop \u2013 and why it matters. New York: Basic Civitas Books.<\/span>
<\/span>Sorett, Josef. (2010). Hip-hop religion and spiritual sampling in a \u201cPost-Racial\u201d age. Religion Dispatches March 24. http:\/\/www.religiondispatches.org\/books\/culture\/2281\/hip-hop_religion_and_spiritual_sampling_in_a_%E2%80%9Cpost-racial%E2%80%9D_age\/ (accessed 13 May 2012).<\/span>
<\/span>Utley, E. (2011). Identifying with God: Jay-Z\u2019s power to profit. Religion Dispatches, March 9. http:\/\/www.religiondispatches.org\/archive\/culture\/4326\/identifying_with_god:_jay-z\u2019s_power_to_profit\/<\/span>
<\/span>Utley, E. (2012). Rap and religion: Understanding the gangsta\u2019s God. Westport, CT: Praeger. <\/span><\/a>
<\/span>Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I. & Scott, A. B. (1999). The emerging meanings of religiousness and spirituality: Problems and prospects. Journal of Personality 67(6), 889-919.<\/span>
<\/span>Discography<\/span>
<\/span>T.I.<\/span>
<\/span>(2001) \u201cStill Ain\u2019t Forgave Myself.\u201d I\u2019m Serious[CD]. Arista.<\/span>
<\/span>(2003) \u201cRubber Band Man.\u201d Trap Muzik [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2003) \u201cBe Better Than Me.\u201d Trap Muzik [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2004) \u201cMotivation.\u201d Urban Legend [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2004) \u201cPrayin for Help.\u201d Urban Legend [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cReady for Whatever.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cOn Top of The World.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cNo Matter What.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cLive Your Life.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cDead and Gone.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2008) \u201cSlideshow.\u201d Paper Trail [CD]. Grand Hustle Records.<\/span>
<\/span>Jay-Z<\/span>
<\/span>(1999) \u201cHova Song.\u201d Vol 3: The Life and Times of S. Carter [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(1999) \u201cS. Carter.\u201d Vol 3: The Life and Times of S. Carter [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(1999) \u201cHova Song Outro.\u201d Vol 3: The Life and Times of S. Carter [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2001) \u201cIzzo (H.O.V.A).\u201d The Blueprint. [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2003) \u201cWhat More Can I Say.\u201d The Black Album [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2006) \u201cKingdom Come.\u201d Kingdom Come [CD]. Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span>
<\/span>(2009) \u201cRun This Town.\u201d The Blueprint 3 [CD] Roc-A-Fella Records.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/body><\/html>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
by Sharon Lauricella and Samuel KyeremeR3 Contributors*A extended version of this post is in press with the Journal of Religion and Society.\u201cGod give new beginnings, you can start right now\u201d \u2014 T.I., A Better Day, 2008Like those who listen to it, rap music, together with Motown, blues, and music brought to North America from West […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2251,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1992","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"yoast_head":"\n