What would Righteousness Look Like for Paul’s Original Roman Audience?

We often read into the Bible our own assumptions. This means that we may have a tendency to read the notion of “righteousness” (dikaiosune in Greek), especially in Paul’s letters, as justification. We may think about Martin Luther, the Reformation, and that justification has to do with God acquitting sinners and declaring them righteous on account of faith (Romans 1:16–17; Galatians 2:16). But then some professor comes along (like me!) and reminds us that Paul’s original audience nearly 2000 years ago could not have known about Martin Luther. They may not have automatically thought about dikaiosune as God’s forensic declaration of “not guilty.”

Paul’s audience, both in Romans and Corinthians, consisted mostly of gentiles (Romans 1:5–6; 1 Corinthians 12:2). The majority of them probably did not grown up learning the Torah. Nor did they have ministers teaching them systematic theology so that they might differentiate between Protestant and Catholic dogma regarding justification. As former pagans, how might these Roman influenced audiences understand righteousness?

Righteousness Read the Roman Way: Iustitia

In the Roman world, righteousness is the same word for justice—iustitia in Latin. It communicated a central idea promoting pride and propaganda in Rome. Ever since the time of Numa Pompilius, the second ruler of Rome, this people interpreted righteousness as a virtue encouraging fairness, equity, and forbearance.[1]

For the statesman and orator, Cicero, all that is morally right (honestum) stems from one of four virtues that include prudence, justice (iustitia), courage (fortitude), and temperance (On Duties 1.5.15). Cicero considers justice a virtue associated with societal relationships:

“But that division of virtue which is exercised between one being and another is called justice. And that when exercised towards the gods is called religion; towards one’s relations, affection; towards all the world, goodness; when displayed in things entrusted to one, good faith; as exhibited in moderation of punishment, lenity; when it develops itself in goodwill towards an individual its name is friendship.” (Concerning the Partitions of Oratory 22.78 [C. D. Yonge tr.]).

Romans also considered faithfulness/trust (fides) as the foundation for justice (cf. Cicero On Duties 1.7.23).[2] In perhaps the Roman people’ greatest tradition, Virgil’s Aeneid, justice is likewise important. In one scene, Aeneas, the Roman hero and forefather, visits the underworld. There he sees the damned and tormented Phlegyas, who had committed sacrilege by setting fire to the temple of the god Apollos. Phlegyas admonishes all people to learn justice (iustitia) and refuse the temptation of scorning the gods (Virgil, Aeneid 6.618–20).

During the imperial age, Caesar Augustus was said to embody justice; his reign and was closely identified with the goddess Iustitia.[3] The writer Valerius Maximus boasts of Roman society as the clearest example of Justice among all the nations of the world (Memorable Doings and Sayings 6.5).

Paul and the Romans

So what would it be like for Romans who grew up with this ideology hearing Paul proclaim righteousness?

They would very likely interpret this righteousness as a virtue to be embodied and lived out. They would also seem to interpret it as closely associated with faith and trust.

This is not far from what Paul teaches when writing to the Romanized Corinthians: “He [God] made him [Christ] who knew no sin to be sin for us so that we might become the righteousness of God in him [Christ]” (2 Corinthians 5:21). This has to do with embodying righteousness. Even so, this embodiment is quite different than what the Romans would have learned growing up:

First, it is God’s righteousness. Among other things this has to do with saving and transforming righteousness (Rom 1:16–17; 3:21–26).

Second, it is also a justifying righteousness. Its basis points to Christ becoming the atoning sacrifice for the sins of all people. (The forensic view of Luther is thus included; I do not take an either/or position.)

Third, the believers are to embody this righteousness in Christ. This refers to an ongoing relationship and transformation, a participation in union and fellowship with Christ via God’s Spirit. As such, the moral aspect of living out this righteousness is not about self-righteousness. It involves instead a righteousness and justice empowered by the Spirit to those who trust in Christ and stay in union with him.

Finally, unlike Roman ideology, righteousness characterizes the God Paul proclaims, and that righteousness is revealed in the message of the good news. This gospel message neither promotes Caesar, nor the goddess Iustitia, nor the pride of Roman society that used justice as a way to keep the nations in subjection. This righteousness does not promote Roman superiority over the conquered. Rather, it extends to all nations and every person. Anyone who believes and has fides (faith/trust) can experience and participate in this righteousness by calling on the name of the Lord Jesus.

Let me know what you think about this on my Twitter. If there’s enough interest on this subject, we will plan to explore righteousness as equity in a future post.

Notes

[1] See further, Klaus B. Haacker, “Justice, Justification, and Righteousness: New Testament,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology,  ed. Walter Dietrich and Klaus B. Haacker (Oxford University Press), 1.584–85, who provides references from Cicero’s On the Republic: 1.14.26; 3.7.10–11; 3.15.24.

[2] See Teresa Morgan, Roman Faith and Christian Faith (Oxford University Press, 2015), 118.

[3]  Res Gestae 34; Ovid, Ex ponto 3.6.23–29. See also Sylvia C. Keesmaat, “Reading Romans in the Capital of the Empire,” in Reading Paul’s Letter to the Romans, ed. Jerry L. Sumney (SBL Press, 2012), 47–64 (53).

Image 1: Christ Righteousness Christian Church Savior via pixabay.com; Image 2: Silhouette Lady Justice Legal Scales via pixabay.com