Tippecanoe And Shakers Too

Tippecanoe And Shakers Too February 3, 2025

In 1747 a Quaker offshoot known as New Lights began in Manchester, England. They held that revelation from God was progressive and believed in both an “Eternal Mother” and an “Eternal Father.” In Shaker cosmology, there were two Christs, one male and one female, who were the progeny of the two great Eternal Beings.[1] The New Lights were a particularly zealous group and held noisy meetings that offended those of the established church. (This is why they came to be known as “Shaking Quakers” or simply “Shakers.”) One Sabbath morning in 1770, every member of their noisy little meeting was arrested and imprisoned—including a young by the name of Ann Lee. She was married and had four children, but they all died in infancy. While imprisoned, the spirit of Jesus came to Ann Lee and gave her a simple message to give to the world. 1. A virgin life; 2. separation from the world; 3. confession and repentance of sin; 4. united inheritance; 5. chastity of body; 6. purity of spirit.[2] Of the more controversial doctrines concerning “Mother Ann Lee” as she came to be known, one of her followers would later articulate:

 

Jesus Christ was the only Christian the earth ever produced until Christ made his second appearance in Ann Lee, and revealed the same principles, and formed the same character, and established the second Christian church on this earth […] Christ, the second Adam, and Eve, was the author and finisher of the faith of Christianity, and in Jesus Christ was the first Christian church, which was perfect and prolific, spiritually, just so far as Adam was perfect, and prolific naturally, before Eve was brought forth. Christ dual, male and female, was a super-mundane being.[3]

 

Ann Lee remained in England about four years after this, when, in the words of one of the first old Shaker hymns: “The Columbian Eagle, Borne by an eastern breeze, Conveyed this little kingdom Across the rolling seas.” A wealthy man named John Hocknell was a believer in the testimony of Mother Ann Lee and was one of a company of eight who accompanied her to America. They arrived in New York on August 6, 1774. Hocknell purchased land seven miles from Albany, New York, and they settled what would later be the village of Watervliet.[4] These exiles lived here for nearly four years, surrounded by Dutch settlers, waiting for the fulfillment of Mother Ann Lee’s prophecy, “the gathering of persons to the Gospel of Christ’s second appearing.”[5] The Shakers did not build structures. They instead lived in farmhouses and worshiped in nature (fields, forests, etc.)  Those who joined the Shakers in the late 1770s and early 1780s could retain their private property. This changed after communalism was introduced the winter of 1782.[6] After the deaths of Ann Lee and William Lee in 1784, James Whittaker (who followed Lee from England) became the leader of the Shakers.[7] He was succeeded by Joseph Meacham (“Father Meacham”) who, before converting to Shakerism, led a congregation of Baptists in New Lebanon, New York (thirty miles south of Albany.) It was Father Meacham who began establishing organized Shaker communities. The first building erected was a Shaker meetinghouse in Mount Lebanon.[8] The over-spill from the Baptist revivals that washed over New England saw hundreds of new members convert during this time. New converts would confess their sins, sign a covenant that relinquished all lands and material possessions to the Society and enter into a communal life of celibacy, manual labor, and simple worship. When Father Meacham died in 1796, the Shakers were led by Mother Lucy Wright, and by 1805 they had spread out into eleven communities in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont.[9] Since Shakers were dedicated to a life of celibacy, another way their movement grew was by adopting orphans. (Shaker communities were sometimes referred to as “orphanages of their day” because of the number of children brought into their fold.) These orphans (and the children who entered their communities with older members of their family) went into the children’s order, where boys and girls were tutored separately, and trained in skills relevant to household and farmstead living. With this training, they were provided the necessary skills to live among the “world’s people” should they choose to leave to community in adulthood.[10]

This was a time when religious fervor had flared up in the wilderness of Tennessee and Kentucky; John Wesley’s Methodists had re-kindled the flame of Christian perfectionism, and inspired a Great Revival and the first Camp-Meetings.)[11] Though not nearly as “heterodox” as other Christian denominations in America, the Methodists had their share of worship that would raise some eyebrows in Congregationalist pews. One tributary that influenced the theology of Wesley was the Moravians (a sect that the Methodists were in close communication with.)[12] Before his evangelical conversion in 1738, Wesley and his family were also subject to otherworldly “rappings” and various supernatural activities (like the moving of furniture and the breaking of glasses.)[13] Shaker missionaries were soon to arrive to investigate the religious fervor of the trans-Appalachian frontier. They were particularly interested in the new phenomenon of “somatic fits,” or “the jerks.” Camp-meeting converts were reportedly experiencing “perpetual convulsive jerking” movements in their limbs.[14] “As an outcome of the Kentucky revival,” a Community of Shakers was established in the village of Busro, on the Wabash River, “a settlement on the extreme frontier, then the Indian Territory.” The Shakers kept their trading men constantly on the road, traveling through the country, and dealing with the people on the frontier. They went in pairs on horseback and were easily distinguished from other people (at any distance) owing to their broad-brim hats and peculiarity in dress.[15] The Shakers developed a reputation for their skill at making tools and their knowledge of medicinal tonics. (Amos Bishop or Tabitha Babbitt invented the circular saw at this time and Dr. Corbett invented sarsaparilla syrup.)[16]

Tension between settlers and the Indians was always a concern. President James Madison placed General William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory, in charge of all Indian affairs. In the early days of the Republic, a concourse of 3,000 Native Americans gathered on the Wabash River in what would become the largest Indian community assembled in the Great Lakes Territories. Tippecanoe, or “Prophetstown” as it was known to white settlers, flourished for a time in the opening years of the nineteenth century.[17] Tippecanoe was founded in 1808 by the Shawnee Chief, Tecumseh, and his brother, Tenkswatawa (“The Prophet,”) and organized according to divine revelation. While in a deep trance in 1805, the “Great Spirit” told Tenkswatawa that in order to save their culture, the various tribes must band together in a “Pan-Indian” Confederation. They were to then avoid contact with white settlers and establish an independent and segregated nation.[18] A huge, striking, double-tailed comet appeared for the first over France in March 1811 (and would continue to be seen for seventeen months.)[19] In Europe the Great Comet of 1811 was known as “Napoleon’s Comet,” but in America, it was known as “Tecumseh’s Comet.” (This was particularly apt, as Tecumseh meant “Comet” in his native tongue.)[20] Harrison did not trust Tecumseh or Tenkswatawa and believed they were British spies. (Harrison was among those Americans who believed the British were actively trying to turn the Native peoples against the young nation.)[21] The Native Americans did not have a monopoly on revolting against the encroachment of modernity. Back in England (in the factory towns where the Shakers began,) the “Luddites” began wreaking havoc on machinery in 1811. (The name derived from the character of “General Ludd,” a Leicester idiom for machine breaker; the appellation honored Ned Ludd, a man who destroyed stocking frames in 1779.) A working-class movement, “Luddism” referred to the destruction of labor-saving machinery that threatened the livelihoods of laborers.[22]

In 1811 the Shakers at Mount Lebanon sent Issachar Bates, Archibald Meacham, and others, as missionaries to Busro. They vigorously went to work enlarging the settlement, plowing the land, planting seeds, and building log houses. They were rewarded that autumn with a plentiful harvest (that was readily disposed of in the district, often in gifts to the many who suffered for want of food.) Plans were drafted for the construction of a saw and grist mill that spring. Nearly one hundred and fifty converts had joined the Society, and everything was progressing favorably for the settlement. Then “rumors of an Indian war broke upon the serenity of the followers of Mother Ann.” In the summer of 1811, Tecumseh began a six-month tour to recruit members for the “Pan-Indian” nation.[23] As a precautionary measure, Harrison called out the militia. The Shakers were notified to join the army at once, which summons, as pacifists, they willfully disregarded. In the meantime, Tecumseh was summoned to appear before Harrison at Vincennes. The lordly chief, with a large following of his warriors, appeared in person before Harrison to disclaim any intention of war against the whites. The council came to an end with the only result being a deep distrust on both sides. Farms were abandoned, and settlers, believing “an Indian war was imminent,” flocked into the forts. In the middle of June, a party of Indians visited the Shakers, bringing with them a quantity of farming tools to be repaired. Elder Issachar, fearful of a condemnation by Harrison, wrote to the Governor for instructions. He received, in reply, “that no smithwork whatever should be done for the Indians; only to feed them well and treat them kindly.” The Indians were disappointed at this turn in affairs and declared they had not a single thought of war. “We don’t take our squaws with us when we are on the warpath,” they said. As they were accompanied by their wives and children, it would seem they were speaking the truth. For nearly a month, two hundred Indians were encamped near the Shaker settlement. Since they behaved very peaceably and left without making a single inroad upon the Shaker property, “it lent color to the report that the Shakers were in league with the Indians for the expulsion of the whites.” This rumor was strengthened by the Shaker’s absolute refusal to take up arms against the Indians. The more antagonistic opponents of Shakerism declared that Elder Issachar and his followers “were at the bottom of all the trouble,” and they “should be banished forthwith from the territory.” (The Shaker doctrine of simplicity favored “heart over the head,” and believed that the uneducated, women, children, and “poor Indians”  embodied simplicity more than educated men.)[24] At the very height of all this excitement, the Shakers experienced a deadly malaria outbreak that prostrated a good many in the community. A strolling band of Indians took this opportunity to steal a valuable team of horses that belonged to the Shakers. The Shakers did not want to lose so many valuable horses without at least an effort for their recovery. Two of the Brethren, Abraham, and James, followed up the Indian trail for a hundred miles with one Capt. Robbins. They succeeded in capturing the horses and started on their return trip. Ten miles down the road they were overtaken by the same Indians, who recaptured the Shaker horses (as well the three that Abraham, James, and Capt. Robbins had ridden in their journey.) Capt. Robbins was indignant that his Shaker companions “would willingly submit to such treatment without fighting for their rights,” and he strongly implored them to allow him to hold the “red devils” at bay. It was no use. “Nay, nay, friend Robbins,” they replied, “we must not commit so grievous a sin.” As unfortunate as the situation was, this affair relieved the Shakers from the stigma “that they were in league with the Indians for the overthrow of the whites, as it was seen that the Indians were no respecters of persons in their raids.”

Harrison told the War Department in August 1811, that he did not expect hostilities before Tecumseh returned from his tour. In the meantime, he endeavored to break up the Indian Confederacy, if possible, without bloodshed. By the middle of September, the advance troops under Harrison began arriving at Busro and a company of cavalry and two infantry were quartered in the Shaker settlement. The commissary used the Elder’s house as a storehouse, and the back door yard was transformed into a slaughter pen (much to the disgust of the Elders.)  To top it all, the beating drums and piercing fifes turned the peaceful settlement into a camp of war. Many Shakers were drafted into the service, while all were required to do military duty, and their non-compliance resulted in a multitude of fines. One day, however, Capt. Boyd, with five hundred regulars from Boston, arrived in Busro. He at once interceded on behalf of the persecuted Shakers, saying that he knew them back home in the East and that they were the best of people in the community. Around the same time, Col. Davis arrived with a troop of cavalry from Kentucky. He was well acquainted with the Pleasant Hill Shakers and joined Col. Boyd in his efforts to relieve the Shakers from participating in military duty. On September 26, Harrison arrived, and all of the Shakers drafted for war were ordered to report for duty at noon. By the advice of Col. Davis (who was a lawyer,) the Shaker Elders called upon Harrison and made their situation known to him. It was eventually arranged that the Shakers could remain in camp at their settlement and be detailed as hospital nurses. On September 28, Harrison’s army took up their march northward to meet the foe. It was not until November 6, however, that the famous “Battle Of Tippecanoe” was fought, “and in which General Harrison routed the brave Tecumseh and laid in waste his town and all therein.”[25] Tenkswatawa’s cowardice was named as a demoralizing factor in the battle.[26] It was said that the appearance of the Great Comet somehow weakened Tenkswatawa’s resolve.[27]

Portents of destruction were in surplus. A series of massive earthquakes rocked the eastern half of North America between December 1811 and March 1812. Fiery Christian preachers and Indian prophets alike warned of the divine disfavor with humanity in this new century. An apocalyptic spiritual movement had developed among the Creek (allegedly after a visit from Tecumseh) that spread to the Cherokees.[28] In the tangled web of belief, it is more likely that Creek apocalypticism emerged independently as a response to the same psychosocial stressors that motivated Tenkswatawa.[29] In February 1812, a group of Cherokees visited the Moravian missionaries to blame white settlements for the cause of the earthquakes. “Many Indians believe that white people are responsible for this because they already possess so much Indian land and want ever more,” they said. “God is angry about this and wants to scare them through earthquakes to put an end to this.” The Moravians held a similar view. “It is surely now a singular time in the world, one hears nothing but wars and rumors of war and earthquakes now and again,” one Moravian missionary wrote at the time, “things which were foretold by the Savior, which He said would be fulfilled shortly before He comes again for judgement of the world.”[30] Other Christian divines in America (from New England to the South) saw the global conflicts as a sign of Christ’s imminent return, and the figure of Napoleon as the veritable Antichrist.[31] In Europe, a Lutheran pietist clergyman, Johann Albrecht Bengel, predicted that Christ would return in 1836 and begin His 1,000-year reign, known as the Millennium. (Millennialism) Another leading figure among the German mystics, Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling, elaborated on Bengel’s premise. Jung-Stilling condemned the godless French Revolution and saw the Napoleonic Wars as a harbinger of the End of Days; he predicted that the eschaton would occur in 1819.[32] There was room enough in Jung-Stilling’s theology, however, for the existence of ghosts, stating that “the souls of departed men occasionally reappear after death, and show themselves to the living.”[33]

Within two years of the “Battle Of Tippecanoe,” the Shakers would have a group of Millenialist neighbors; a community known as the Harmony Society, or “Harmonists,” would establish the communal village of New Harmony on the banks of the Wabash River (75 miles south of the Shaker village of Busro.) Their leader, George Rapp, was a German farmer from Wurtemberg of plebian descent. The Harmony Society, which began in the 1780s, faced religious persecution in their homeland. Hoping to find freedom to practice their beliefs, Rapp and one hundred twenty-five families immigrated to America. They settled near Pittsburgh, founding the village of Harmonie in 1803, they shared labor and property as part of their preparation for the Coming of Christ. Their new village in Posey County, Indiana, “New Harmony,” was a nod to their former commune. [34]

 


 

SOURCES:

 

[1] Tomas E. Hill. Hill’s Album Of Biography And Art. Hill Standard Book Company. Chicago, Illinois. (1888): 43.

[2] “The Shakers.” The Granite Monthly. Vol. III, No. 4 (January 1880): 145-147.

[3] (ed.) Yerrinton, J.M.W. Proceedings Of The Free Convention Held At Rutland, Vt., June 25th, 26th, And 27th, 1858. S.T. Munson. New York, New York. (1858): 151-159. [Address Of F.W. Evans.]

[4] Mace, Aurelia G. “The Mission And Testimony Of The Shakers Of The Twentieth Century To The World: A Lecture Delivered At Greenacre, Eliot, Maine, July 19, 1904.” In Mace, Aurelia G. The Aletheia: Spirit Of Truth. Press Of The Knowledge & McLeary Co. Farmington, Maine. (1907): 130-146. (135-136.)

[5] Evans. Frederick William Evans. Shakers. D. Appleton And Company. New York, New York. (1859): 24.

[6] Coşgel, Metin M.; Murray, John E. “Productivity Of A Commune: The Shakers, 1850-1880.” The Journal Of Economic History. Vol. LVIII, No. 2 (June 1998): 494-510.

[7] Wenger, Tisa J. “Female Christ And Feminist Foremother: The Many Lives Of Ann Lee.” Journal Of Feminist Studies In Religion. Vol. XVIII, No. 2 (Fall 2002): 5-32.

[8] Nicoletta, Julie. “The Gendering Of Order And Disorder: Mother Ann Lee And Shaker Architecture.” The New England Quarterly. Vol. LXXIV, No. 2 (June 2001): 303-316.

[9] Bakken, Dawn E. “Young Believers And Old Believers In The Wilderness: Narratives Of Place And The Construction Of Family Among Western Shakers.” Indiana Magazine Of History. Vol. XCVII, No. 4 (December 2001): 278-295.

[10] Vanstory, Burnette. “Shakerism And The Shakers In Georgia.” The Georgia Historical Quarterly. Vol. XLIII, No. 4 (December 1959): 353-364.

[11] Smith, Z. F. “The Great Revival Of 1800: The First Camp-Meeting.” Register Of Kentucky State Historical Society. Vol. VII, No. 20 (May 1909): 19, 21-35; Johnson, James E. “Charles G. Finney And Oberlin Perfectionism: Pt. I.” Journal Of Presbyterian History. Vol. XLVI, No. 1 (March 1968): 42-57.

[12] Hammond, Geordan. “Versions of Primitive Christianity: John Wesley’s Relations With The Moravians In Georgia, 1735-1737.” Journal Of Moravian History. No. 6 (2009): 31–60.

[13] Salmon, George. “Spirit-Rapping A Hundred And Fifty Years Ago.” The Fortnightly Review. Vol. III, No. 18 (February 1, 1866): 721-734.

[14] Winiarski, Douglas L. “Seized By The Jerks: Shakers, Spirit Possession, And The Great Revival.” The William And Mary Quarterly. Vol. LXXVI, No. 1 (January 2019): 111-150.

[15] Ingram, M.V. An Authenticated History Of The Famous Bell Witch. Setliff & Co. Nashville, Tennessee. (1894): 152-153.

[16] “The Shakers.” The Granite Monthly. Vol. III, No. 4 (January 1880): 145-147.

[17] Willig, Timothy D. “Prophetstown On The Wabash: The Native Spiritual Defense Of The Old Northwest.” Michigan Historical Review. Vol. XXIII, No. 2 (Fall 1997): 115-158.

[18] Smelser, Marshall. “Tecumseh, Harrison, And The War Of 1812.” Indiana Magazine Of History. Vol. LXV, No. 1 (March 1969): 25-44;

Bottiger, Patrick. “Prophetstown For Their Own Purposes: The French, Miamis, And Cultural Identities In The Wabash—Maumee Valley.” Journal Of The Early Republic. Vol. XXXIII, No. 1 (Spring 2013): 29-60.

[19] “Long-Tailed Comet Shows In June.” The Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington) May 29, 1921.

[20] “Fiery Sword In The Sky Draws All Eyes.” The World. (New York, New York) March 8, 1898; Koenig, Duane. “Comets, Superstitions, And History.” Quarterly Journal Of The Florida Academy Of Sciences. Vol. XXXI, No. 2 (June 1968): 81-92.

[21] Early in 1795 Canada’s governor-in-chief delivered an inflammatory speech to Native Americans that was widely viewed in America as the catalyst for their attacks on American forces.  It was believed that the British were instigating their Native American allies “to ravage [new America] settlements and excite terror in the hearts” of all settlers in the western frontier. Some people even believed that the British were planning an imminent attack from Canada, employing Native Americans against the United States. [Peskin, Lawrence A. “Conspiratorial Anglophobia And The War Of 1812.” The Journal Of American History. Vol. XCVIII, No. 3 (December 2011): 647–669.]

[22] Horn, Jeff. “Machine-Breaking In England And France During The Age Of Revolution.” Labour / Le Travail. Vol. LV (Spring 2005): 143-166; Navickas, Katrina. “The Search For ‘General Ludd’: The Mythology Of Luddism.” Social History. Vol. XXX, No. 3 (August 2005): 281-295.

[23] Sugden, John. “Early Pan-Indianism; Tecumseh’s Tour Of The Indian Country, 1811-1812.” American Indian Quarterly. Vol. X, No. 4 (Autumn 1986): 273-304.

[24] Seeman, Erik R. “Native Spirits, Shaker Visions: Speaking With The Dead In The Early Republic.” Journal Of The Early Republic. Vol. XXXV, No. 3 (Fall 2015): 347-373.

[25] Robinson, Charles Edson. A Concise History Of The United Society Of Believers Called Shakers. Shaker Village. East Canterbury, New Hampshire. (1893): 74-76.

[26] Cave, Alfred A. “The Shawnee Prophet, Tecumseh, And Tippecanoe: A Case Study Of Historical Myth-Making.” Journal Of The Early Republic. Vol. XXII, No. 4 (Winter 2002): 637-673.

[27] “Fiery Sword In The Sky Draws All Eyes.” The World. (New York, New York) March 8, 1898; Koenig, Duane. “Comets, Superstitions, And History.” Quarterly Journal Of The Florida Academy Of Sciences. Vol. XXXI, No. 2 (June 1968): 81-92.

[28] “According to [the statement of James Wafford of the Cherokee nation] the [apocalyptic] doctrine first came to them through the Creek about 1812 or 1813. It was prob ably given to the Creek by Tecumseh and his party on their visit to that tribe in the fall of 1811 […] The Creek were taught by their prophets that the old Indian life was soon to return, when ‘instead of beef and bacon they would have venison, and instead of chickens they would have turkeys.’ Great sacred dances were inaugurated, and the people were exhorted to be ready for what was to come. From the south the movement spread to the Cherokee, and one of their priests, living in what is now upper Georgia, began to preach that on a day near at hand there would be a terrible storm, with a mighty wind and hailstones as large as hominy mortars, which would destroy from the face of the earth all but the true believers who had previously taken refuge on the highest summits of the Great Smoky Mountains.” [Mooney, James. The Ghost-Dance Religion And The Sioux Outbreak Of 1890. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. (1896): 676-677.]

[29] Pesantubbee, Michelene E. “When The Earth Shakes: The Cherokee Prophecies Of 1811-12.” American Indian Quarterly. Vol. XVII, No. 3 (Summer 1993): 301-317.

[30] Hancock, Jonathan. “Shaken Spirits: Cherokees, Moravian Missionaries, And The New Madrid Earthquakes.” Journal Of The Early Republic. Vol. XXXIII, No. 4 (Winter 2013): 643-673.

[31] In 1809 an anonymous pamphlet was published in New York titled, The Identity Of Napoleon And Antechrist, which connected passages from the Biblical Book Of Revelation and Book Of Daniel to the exploits of Napoleon. Was not the Corsican the Beast prophesied to rise out of the sea? (“And I stood upon the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea.”—Revelations. 13:1.) In 1811, the Reverend William C. Davis of South Carolina, published a sermon titled, The Millennium, Or S Short Sketch On The Rise And Fall Of Antichrist, in which he contends that Napoleon is the titular villain. Similar themes were found in the sermons of the New England preachers Ethan Smith and Elijah Parish, both of which tied Napoleon’s sacking of Rome and imprisonment of the Pope as clear signs of the imminent eschaton. [Pesenson, Michael A. Napoleon Bonaparte And Apocalyptic Discourse In Early Nineteenth-Century Russia.” The Russian Review. Vol. LXV, No. 3 (July 2006): 373-392.]

[32] There was something of a consensus among the mystics that the End of the World was at hand, though they differed on when, exactly, that day would be. Some felt that it would take place in 1806 (with the fall of the Holy Roman Empire.) Others believed it would be in the year 1816 or 1836. Assuming that one day equaled a thousand years with the Lord, and the world was supposed to last for six days, Jung-Stilling reasoned that the world would last six thousand years. Using the Biblical chronology of J. G. Franck (a Hanoverian theologian) Jung-Stilling was confident that Christ was born 4181 years after the beginning of time. By subtracting 4181 from 6000, he arrived at the year 1819. His ideas were first articulated in his 1794 novel Das Heimweh (Longing For Home,) the story of a religious young man who yearned to reach the Kingdom of the Lord in the East, among the Tatar tribes of Central Asia. What set Jung-Stilling apart from the Anglophone Protestant divines of Britain and America was his prediction that Russia would be Christendom’s salvation. He believed that Tsar Alexander Pavlovich would play an important messianic role in Europe by vanquishing Napoleon, and bringing peace to the Continent, thus ushering in the Millennium of Christ. The influence of Jung-Stilling (and others of the German “Awakening) had a strong influence on Russian freemasonry, by de-emphasizing dogma, sacraments, and hierarchy, while emphasizing “inner spirituality and personal communion with God.” Their “Awakening” would also inspire Prince Alexander Golitsyn, the childhood friend of Alexander Pavlovich. Though he was the ober-procurator of the Holy Synod, and effective leader of the Russian Church, Golitsyn was well-entrenched in mysticism. [Troubetzkoy, Alexis S. Imperial Legend: The Mysterious Disappearance Of Tsar Alexander I. Arcade Publishing. New York, New York. (2002): 105; Pesenson, Michael A. “Napoleon Bonaparte And Apocalyptic Discourse In Early Nineteenth-Century Russia.” The Russian Review. Vol. LXV, No. 3 (July 2006): 373-392; Zorin, Andrei. By Fable Alone: Literature And State Ideology In Late Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth- Century Russia. Academic Studies Press.  Boston, Massachusetts. (2014): 288-324.]

[33] Jung-Stilling writes: “Superstition is something mean and contemptible; and as all apparitions of spirits are declared to be superstition, it is therefore natural, that people are ashamed of appearances of this nature. But here, everything depends upon this, whether all the narrations of such appearances be only deception, falsehood, and superstition. It is certain that the greatest part of them are so; but it is equally certain and true that the souls of departed men occasionally reappear after death, and show themselves to the living, sometimes for a shorter, and at other times for a longer period, even for centuries together, desiring some service from them.” [Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich; (tr.) Jackson, Samuel. Theory Of Pneumatology: In Reply To The Question, What Ought To Be Believed Or Disbelieved Concerning Presentiments, Visions, And Apparitions, According To Nature, Reason, And Scripture. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, And Longman. London, England. (1834): 322-323.]

[34] Denehie, Elizabeth Smith. “The Harmonist Movement In Indiana.” Indiana Magazine Of History. Vol. XIX, No. 2 (June 1923): 188-200; Stotz, Charles Morse. “Threshold Of The Golden Kingdom: The Village Of Economy And Its Restoration.” Winterthur Portfolio. Vol. VIII (1973): 133-169; Botscharow-Kamau, Lucy Jayne. “Neighbors: Harmony And Conflict On The Indiana Frontier.” Journal Of The Early Republic. Vol. XI, No. 4 (Winter 1991): 507–529.


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