Presbyterian and Reformed

Reformed and Presbyterian churches are one of the main branches of Protestant Christianity. They were founded in Switzerland in the 16th century by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin.

Zwingli and Calvin were strongly influenced by Renaissance humanism, late medieval nominalism, and lay communities practicing mysticism. Many social changes in the 16th century also created an environment ripe for new religious forms.

The Reformed tradition was begun by Huldrych Zwingli, a contemporary of Martin Luther's independently of Luther's reform. It was shaped decisively by John Calvin.

The Bible is the most important set of writings for Reformed and Presbyterian churches. In addition, Reformed churches share a set of important writings called creeds and confessions that set them off from other branches of Christianity.

Historical scholarship on Reformed and Presbyterian churches often reflected the theological battles of the people writing the scholarship. Recently three trends have emerged: a focus on the medieval nature of the Reformation, attention to the lives of all classes of people at the time of the Reformation, and a debate about the meaning of changes to worship space inaugurated by the Reformers.

The Reformers faced challenges not just from the Catholic Church on the "right," but from a movement of Anabaptists on their "left." After a period of enthusiasm, Reformed churches entered a period of focus on correct doctrine that has come to characterize many people’s opinions of them today.

In Europe, Reformed and Lutheran churches failed to unify. In the United States there have been a series of divisions, centering on the Reformed churches' responses to various revival movements, and on the issue of race.

Reformed and Presbyterian churches played a role in most of the major colonial and imperial expansions of Europe and North America. They are implicated in all the positive and negative aspects of these conquests.

Reformed churches spread quickly in Switzerland, parts of Germany, the Netherlands, and North America. United by a common belief system, the churches took on slightly different forms based on local context.

Like all mainline denominations, the Reformed and Presbyterian churches are experiencing numerical decline in Europe and North America, and growing in the global south.

The emphasis of Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin on the claim that forgiveness of sin is entirely a gracious (free) gift from God, and that humans can do nothing to earn or even prompt this gift, sets the Reformed narrative of salvation off from that of many other Christians.

Reformed Christians have a very strong doctrine of God's sovereignty. This doctrine is the cornerstone of Calvin's theology. Calvin also had a traditional view of Jesus as fully human and fully divine, and he believed in angels and the devil.

Humans were created in the image of God, but since the fall human nature is sinful, that is, fundamentally self-centered. The purpose of existence is to enter heaven, which is possible only through God's free forgiveness for sin.

Suffering for Reformed Christians is the result of evil, which is the result of sin. Responsibility for sin rests entirely on humans. We do not and cannot know why creation was set up in such a way as to allow for sin.

Presbyterians, like most Christians, believe in a traditional idea of an immortal soul that will spend eternity either in a literal place of blessedness called heaven or a literal place of torment called hell. One's destination depends on whether or not one is saved, that is, by God's grace forgiven for sin.

Reformed sacred time is organized by a liturgical calendar that celebrates all the major events in the life of Jesus and of the early Church throughout the course of each year.

Sacred space in the Reformed tradition is characterized by a relatively austere aesthetic, and is designed to focus attention on preaching and on the two sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper.

The sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper have been among the most important and contentious aspects of Reformed theology, setting Reformed Christians off not just from Catholics but from other Protestants as well.

Reformed daily life is shaped by the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers (which in Calvinism leads to idea of vocation and the Protestant work ethic), by an increased focus on all aspects of the personal lives of parishioners, and by a requirement for increased levels of education.

Reformed symbolism tends to be fairly austere, and directs attention to the key doctrines of salvation by faith (as a gift of the Spirit), the priesthood of all believers (and so a downplaying of symbols setting aside ministers as different from others), and sola scriptura (the importance of the Bible).

Reformed churches do not have priests, but ministers. This is because all Christians have equal status in God's eyes, there is no special class of Christians. But some people's gifts are well suited to the tasks of preaching and pastoral care, and these people are "called" to the ministry.

Reformed churches are designed to share leadership between ordained clergy and lay people (elders and deacons). Each Congregationalist church is independent. Presbyterian churches have regional and national governing bodies that consist of elected representatives.

Reformed Christians do not expect perfection from Christians, but do expect effort and improvement. Moral principles are derived from scripture, but there is not currently fully agreement on what scripture requires.

Reformed visions for society tend to take the tone of cautious optimism, based on the belief that humans are depraved (even the saved ones), but that God will provide for enough order and morality in the world to allow the Church to preach and celebrate the sacraments.

Like other Protestant denominations, Reformed churches are divided on questions of gender and sexuality. European churches tend to be more liberal than American ones. In the U.S., Reformed churches tend to have a conservative wing that wants to limit the role of women and condemn homosexuality, and a liberal wing that wants to push for total equality.